Ptlls Understanding of Inclusive Learning and How...

In inclusive learning we need to consider the diversity of a student body and make efforts not to exclude anyone be it intended or unintended. â€Å"Some students could feel excluded during your session if their particular needs are not met,† Gravells (2012:56). Inclusive learning is simply â€Å"involving all students, treating them equally and fairly,† Gravells (2012:56). The field of self-defence includes physical, philosophical and physiological elements which allows for a large range of learning and teaching strategies. A new course would begin with the filling out of an enrolment form and discussions which give participants an initial platform to put across any concerns or specific needs, the initial discussion can also be used as an†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Students seem keen to fit in at university and tend to focus on the similarities between themselves and other students. But when it comes to classroom learning, they value having their individual academic and social identities acknowledged and their particular needs addressed.† Hockings (2008:3) †¢ Inclusivity: It is of importance that the tutor makes all efforts to include all students in the learning environment. Correctly planning lessons, creating a friendly non judgmental atmosphere and including a range of teaching styles will help learners feel included. By unders tanding the needs of the individual, social, physical and academic the tutor can eliminate any feelings of exclusion. †¢ Diversity: Everyone is different and these differences need to be valued, the tolerance of different cultures, beliefs, races, ages and gender to name a few, needs to be of importance not only to the tutor but the students as well. Creating a classroom atmosphere of valuing and understanding individual experiences and views can be achieved through ground rules and by the example set by the tutor. †¢ Differentiation: With the understanding that all students are different the tutor will need to plan the lessons around these differences by using the various teaching methods available or acquiring the resources that will make the students learning experience a productive one. The inclusion of inclusive learning

Development of Anna Fitzgerald Character †My Sister’s...

Development of Anna Fitzgerald Character – My Sister’s Keeper by Jodi Picoult school and last name deleted December 9, 2011 PSYCH1323 Adolescence development relies upon many factors. In order to accurately examine its growth, it is useful to look at some developmental theories. Anna Fitzgerald is thirteen years old; however, she is not like any other teenager with some ordinary problems. Anna was born for a specific purpose she was born to save her sister’s life and to serve as a matched tissue donor. When Anna was born, her umbilical cord was collected and since then she was constantly donating blood, stem cells or bone marrow. That resulted in her undergoing more serious and risky procedures. But when she reaches the age 13,†¦show more content†¦Based on Ericson psychosocial developmental theory, Anna is going through identity vs. role confusion stage. She is confused of her role in the family. Often reflecting of who she is, and what is the purpose of her life, besides being a perfect match for her sick sister. Anna once said: â€Å"I used to pretend that I was just passing through this family on my way to my real one† (Picoult, 2004, p. 49). This shows how confused she is in terms of her life. Furthermore, this identity confusion grows into her even more upon receiving a long awaited letter of acceptance, into a two weeks hockey summer camp. She is not allowed to go because of her sister’s condition. There is a big chance of Kate going into some health crisis while Anna is gone. It is a difficult time for a thirteen year old girl who is full of energy and is not being able to be just an ordinary adolescence. One can also relate Freud’s theory of development to Anna. The id is one of the structures of human personality. It operates on principles of pleasure and immediate satisfaction regardless of societal rules or other surrounding context (Santrock, MacKenzie-Rivers, Malcomson amp; Leung, 2011). Anna’s id arises from her frustration to all medical treatments which are done in order to save her older sister, Kate. Frustration is added by her mother who pushes her to donate the kidney for Kat e. Yet, from the start of the novel Anna knows the reality which she refuses to face, asShow MoreRelatedDilemmas in My Sister’s Keeper by Jodi Picoult Essays2758 Words   |  12 PagesDilemmas in My Sister’s Keeper by Jodi Picoult The novel â€Å"My Sister’s Keeper† by Jodi Picoult explores the medical, legal, ethical and moral issues related to long term illness and discusses some of the bioethical issues around the experimental technique known as pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. The author presents many ethical dilemmas when a couple chooses to genetically engineer a baby to create a bone marrow match for their terminally ill daughter. That creation is Anna Fitzgerald, who is beginning

Liberty University the Significance of the Calling of Paul the Apostle Research Paper free essay sample

From his past, to his life and teachings, Saul of Tarsus is one of the most intriguing and shocking people of history. Born a Roman citizen to Jewish parents, Saul grew up to become a well-known persecutor of the primitive Christian faith. Saul still puzzles the world with one of the most shocking pivotal points in history – his conversion to the faith he so adamantly tried to stomp out. A Look into Saul’s Past Saul was born a Roman citizen to Jewish parents in the city of Tarsus, which today sits in the country of Turkey. Saul was a Pharisee like his father. He grew up as any Jewish boy would have – studying the scriptures. He completed his studies under the teachings of Gamaliel the Elder, the leading authority in the Sanhedrin during that time. Saul knew the scriptures; his theological knowledge is displayed repeatedly throughout the letters he wrote. We will write a custom essay sample on Liberty University the Significance of the Calling of Paul the Apostle Research Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The name of Saul of Tarsus changes in Acts 13:9. â€Å"Then Saul (who also is called Paul)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Before this verse, he is only ever referred to as Saul. After this verse, he is only referred to as Paul, outside of making references to his former self[1]. Saul is first introduced to us in history through the story of Stephen’s stoning in the Bible. Here Saul is pictured as young; we could even imagine him being authoritative and commanding. Saul is left holding coats as he approves the stoning of a Christian. We meet him first in his natural setting, probably at the beginning of his career of making lessons out of anyone that was part of this heresy against his beliefs. The last time we see this version of Saul is when he is making the journey south into Damascus, which is now the capital of modern-day Syria. From the Damascus road to the end of his life, Saul will no longer be the same. Sean McDonough speaks of Saul’s physical stature, which he was known for because he was â€Å"head and shoulders† above the rest. There are secular descriptions of Saul’s appearance as well. It can be assumed Saul was a large man. What is interesting about McDonough’s notes is that Paulus, or Paul, means â€Å"little. † McDonough states that Samuel was told by God not to look at physical stature[2]. The name change of Saul to Paul could have been deliberate, though we have no substantial evidence. Jesus Confronts Saul The moment of saving faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ has often come as a result of a traumatic personal crisis. This was especially true for a Pharisee in the first century after Christ by the name of Saul of Tarsus, later known as the Apostle Paul. [3]† Saul’s experience on the Damascus road has been approached from many di fferent viewpoints throughout the years. Saul would have obviously already been familiar with the claims of Christ’s resurrection as he was a persecutor of that faith. He knew well the shouts of blasphemy against the God of his people. The irony of the situation is that these things he heard and punished as Saul the Persecutor were planted deep inside of his soul and ignited upon the appearance of Christ in the middle of his journey to Damascus. Wendel Meyer says of the Damascus Road Incident, â€Å"†¦the scene is so powerful, so vivid and tangible, that it is easy for it to become the window through which we view and engage the concept of Paul’s conversion. In truth, however, we know that that singular moment as dramatic and important as it proved to be, was only the first instilment of the conversion of †¦ Paul. 4]† It is important to note that it did not take Saul long to form his theological ideas after the Damascus Road Incident. There was no massive change in beliefs that Saul had to go through. What changed in him was an additional piece added into what he already knew to be true. The Hebrew Scriptures that formed Saul’s beliefs had not been re-written. They were simply fulfill ed, as Mathew 5:17 states, â€Å"Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. [5]† Paul’s Life and Teachings People had no idea what to make of the new Saul of Tarsus. Surely his behavior was a trick, a trap to find Christians and kill them too. The reactions and emotions that rose up against Saul in the beginning of his journey are logical and reasonable. Everyone was terrified of him. Here was the man famous far and wide for killing people who claimed to follow a man named Jesus. Here he was, standing in the temple preaching Jesus. Many thought it was a trap, and rightly so, others were baffled, and even fewer believed. Even the twelve disciples stayed away from Saul after his conversion. The one person that did believe Saul however, was Barnabas. When no one else trusted him, Barnabas took Saul and brought him to the others for acceptance. Barnabas went on to become Paul’s missionary partner and friend. Because of Barnabas, Paul is able to be seen as a disciple of God. He is not considered one of the twelve, but he does play a special role in the early church[6]. Paul’s ministry was first to the Jews, who rejected him, until he turned to the Gentiles as stated in Acts 13. Charles Hedrick also says of Paul’s ministry, â€Å"Paul is directed to testify specifically about what he has seen and heard on the road to Damascus. The missionary charge to preach before kings in Acts 9:15 is Lukes anticipation of the way he closed Pauls public ministry by having Paul preach before King Agrippa[7]. † What is so significant about Paul is his change from being the well-known version of Saul of Tarsus to the missionary version of Paul the Apostle. Paul went from beating and stoning to being beaten and stoned. His change was radical! He never stayed silent. Paul proclaimed what he believed for everyone to hear. He was willing to suffer for something he once persecuted for. This life baffles people. He lived a life so drastic and thorough that you can’t even call him a hypocrite. He was open about his past and broken by it. Thousands of people over the years and throughout cultures have been stunned by the life and teachings of Paul. The Death of Paul the Apostle Saul the Persecutor becomes Paul the Persecuted. In coming full circle, Paul realized that he could be more effective in his ministry. He lived a life full of opposition. Paul understood the anger and frustration of the persecuting because he had stood in their place. Saul was stoned, beaten, chased out of cities, ridiculed, and more. It is unknown, through the Bible and through Secular History, exactly how Paul the Apostle died. It is assumed by most scholars that he was beheaded by the Romans in 67 A. D. Paul’s death has little to do with the legacy that he left behind for all. It was his life that matters most to us today. It is the way he lived that bewilders and confuses and offers a brilliant hope. The Christ of Paul enabled him to live out such an inspirational life that readers of Paul want to follow in his footsteps and live a better life. Conclusion The image of Saul of Tarsus and that of Paul the Apostle are drastically different.

The Rhetorical Stance - Booth free essay sample

Successful ences quite unconnected vith a speci6c rhetoricians are to some extent like writing course. I remember the instrucpoets, born, not made. They are also tor in psychology who pencilled one dependent on years of practice and ex- word after a peculiarly pretentious perience. And we can finally admit that paper of mine: bull. I remember the day even the firmest of principles about when P. A. Christensen talked with me writing cannot be taught in the same about my Chaucer paper, and made me sense that elementary logiC or arithmetic understand that my failure to use efor French can be taught.Then teachers and students knov what they are seeking. Churchill reports that the most valuable training he ever eceived in rhetoric vas in the diagramming of sentences. Think of it! Yet the diagramming of a sentence, regardless of the grammatical systelTI, can be a live subJect as soon as one asks not simply How is this sentence put together, but rather WIlY is it put together in this way? or Could the rhetorical balance and hence the desired persuasion be better achieved by vriting it differently? As a nation we are reputed to write very badly. We will write a custom essay sample on The Rhetorical Stance Booth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As a nation, I would say, we are more inclined to the perversions of rhetoric than to the rhetorical balance. Regardless of what we do about this or that course in the cUlfriculum, our

Bill Clinton Essays (433 words) - Rodham Family, Blythe,

William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19, 1946)[1] was the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. At 46 he was the third-youngest president; only Theodore Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy were younger when entering office. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and as he was born in the period after World War II, he is known as the first baby boomer president.[2] His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States Secretary of State. She was previously a United States Senator from New York, and also candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. Both are graduates of Yale Law School. Clinton was described as a New Democrat and was largely known for the Third Way philosophy of governance that came to epitomize his two terms as president.[3] His policies, on issues such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been described as centrist.[4][5] Clinton presided over the longest period of peace-time economic expansion in American history (which was initiated under President George H.W. Bush), which included a balanced budget and a federal surplus. The Congressional Budget Office reported a surplus of $236 billion in 2000, the last full year of Clinton's presidency.[6] On the heels of a failed attempt at health care reform with a Democratic Congress, Republicans won control of the House of Representatives for the first time in forty years.[7] Two years later, in 1996, Clinton was re-elected and became the first member of the Democratic Party since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second full term as president.[8] Later he was impeached for per jury and obstruction of justice, but was subsequently acquitted by the U.S. Senate.[9][10] During his presidency he was accused of adultery, sexual harassment, sexual assault, and rape. Clinton left office with an approval rating at 66%, the highest end of office rating of any president since World War II.[11] Since then, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to promote and address international causes such as treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2004, he released his autobiography My Life, and was involved in his wife Hillary's 2008 presidential campaign and subsequently in that of President Barack Obama. In 2009, he was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti.[12] In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Clinton teamed with George W. Bush to form the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund.

Dichotomies in Toni Morrisons Recitatif

Dichotomies in Toni Morrisons Recitatif The short story, Recitatif, by Pulitzer Prize-winning author Toni Morrison appeared in 1983 in Confirmation: An Anthology of African American Women. It is Morrisons only published short story, though excerpts of her novels have sometimes been published as stand-alone pieces in magazines. For instance, Sweetness, was excerpted from her 2015 novel God Help the Child. The two main characters of the story, Twyla, and Roberta, come from different races. One is black, the other white. Morrison allows us to see the intermittent conflicts between them, from the time theyre children to the time theyre adults. Some of those conflicts seem to be influenced by their racial differences, but interestingly, Morrison never identifies which girl is black and which is white. It can be tempting, at first, to read this story as a sort of brain teaser challenging us to determine the secret of each girls race. But to do so is to miss the point and to reduce a complex and powerful story into nothing more than a gimmick. Because if we dont know each characters race, were forced to consider other sources of the conflict between the characters, including, for example, socioeconomic differences and each girls lack of familial support. And to the extent that the conflicts do seem to involve race, they raise questions about how people perceive differences rather than suggesting anything intrinsic about one race or another. A Whole Other Race When she first arrives at the shelter, Twyla is disturbed by being moving to a strange place, but she is more disturbed by being placed with a girl from a whole other race. Her mother has taught her racist ideas, and those ideas seem to loom larger for her than the more serious aspects of her abandonment. But she and Roberta, it turns out, has a lot in common. Neither does well in school. They respect each others privacy and dont pry. Unlike the other state kids in the shelter, they dont have beautiful dead parents in the sky. Instead, theyve been dumped Twyla because her mother dances all night and Roberta because her mother is sick. Because of this, they are ostracized by all the other children, regardless of race. Other Sources of Conflict When Twyla sees that her roommate is from a whole other race, she says, My mother wouldnt like you putting me in here. So when Robertas mother refuses to meet Twylas mother, its easy to imagine her reaction as a comment on race as well. But Robertas mother is wearing a cross and carrying a Bible. Twylas mother, in contrast, is wearing tight slacks and an old fur jacket. Robertas mother might very well recognize her as a woman who dances all night. Roberta hates the shelter food, and when we see the generous lunch her mother packs, we can imagine that shes accustomed to better food at home. Twyla, on the other hand, loves the shelter food because her mothers idea of supper was popcorn and a can of Yoo-Hoo. Her mother packs no lunch at all, so they eat jellybeans from Twylas basket. So, while the two mothers may differ in their racial background, we can also conclude that they differ in their religious values, their morals, and their philosophy on parenting. Struggling with an illness, Robertas mother may be particularly appalled that Twylas healthy mother would squander a chance to take care of her daughter. All of these differences are perhaps more salient because Morrison refuses to give the reader any certainty regarding race. As young adults, when Robert and Twyla encounter each other at the Howard Johnsons, Roberta is glamorous in her skimpy make-up, big earrings, and heavy make-up that makes the big girls look like nuns. Twyla, on the other hand, is the opposite in her opaque stockings and shapeless hairnet. Years later, Roberta tries to excuse her behavior by blaming it on race. Oh, Twyla, she says, you know how it was in those days: black-white. You know how everything was. But Twyla remembers blacks and whites mixing freely at the Howard Johnsons during that time period. The real conflict with Roberta seems to come from the contrast between a small-town country waitress and a free spirit on her way to see Hendrix and determined to appear sophisticated. Finally, the gentrification of Newburgh highlights the characters class conflict. Their meeting comes in a new grocery store designed to capitalize on the recent influx of wealthy residents. Twyla is shopping there just to see, but Roberta is clearly part of the stores intended demographic. No Clear Black and White When racial strife comes to Newburgh over proposed bussing, it drives the biggest wedge yet between Twyla and Roberta. Roberta watches, immovable, as the protestors rock Twylas car. Gone are the old days, when Roberta and Twyla would reach for each other, pull each other up, and defend each other from the gar girls in the orchard. But the personal and the political become hopelessly entwined when Twyla insists on making protest posters that depend entirely on Robertas. AND SO DO CHILDREN, she writes, which makes sense only in light of Robertas sign, MOTHERS HAVE RIGHTS TOO! Finally, Twylas protests become painfully cruel and directed solely at Roberta. IS YOUR MOTHER WELL? her sign asks one day. Its a terrible jab at a state kid whose mother never recovered from her illness. Yet its also a reminder of the way Roberta snubbed Twyla at the Howard Johnsons, where Twyla inquired sincerely about Robertas mother, and Roberta cavalierly lied that her mother was fine. Was desegregation about race? Well, obviously. And is this story about race? Id say yes. But with the racial identifiers purposely indeterminate, readers have to reject Robertas oversimplified excuse that thats how everything was and dig a little deeper to the causes of conflict.

Famous Leader - Margaret Thatcher EX-Prime Minister of Great Britain Essay

Famous Leader - Margaret Thatcher EX-Prime Minister of Great Britain - Essay Example People often described Thatcher using terms such as decisive, determined, iron willed and confident. These terms typify Thatcher’s inherent leadership traits, thereby, affirming the trait theory of leadership. â€Å"Trait theory of leadership differentiates a leader from a non-leader by concentrating on the individual’s inherent characteristics and qualities† (Northouse, 2012, p. 65). Thatcher further demonstrated numerous behaviors that distinguished her from other leaders. These behaviors included a desire to lead, integrity, intelligence, job related knowledge and self confidence. Although the trait theory of leadership is a viable approach to people’s leadership attributes, the approach has certain limitations, for instance, there are no collective traits, which envisage leadership under all situations. Traits essentially foretell people’s behaviors, particularly in the context of adverse situations rather than constructive situations. Such limi tations have pushed researchers to advocate the consideration of alternative leadership theories. This paper will examine Margaret Thatcher’s leadership traits, skills and behaviors in the context of the traits theory of leadership. ... Effective leaders also have the capacity to appreciate how they can attain their objectives. Leadership traits or qualities differentiate leaders from followers. Thatcher had the aforementioned characteristics, which differentiated her as an effective leader. Some of Thatcher’s most notable leadership traits include courage and resolution, self-confidence and decisiveness. Thatcher’s courage was evidenced by her throwing herself into politics; a male dominated field in which women were not welcomed. Thatcher showed courage and resolution through her single-minded passion to fight off her opposition. Notably, Thatcher had the drive to confront her enemies. Thatcher also demonstrated exceptional conviction and confidence, which enabled her to remain in power. In the course of Thatcher’s premiership, Britain’s unemployment rates rose rapidly. However, Thatcher’s conviction allowed her to offer persuasive arguments, for instance, that a tightly-bound ec onomy would offer future benefits. The mammoth patriotic enthusiasm that followed Thatcher facilitated her persuasive tendencies. Thatcher’s conviction further exemplified her decisiveness. She did not follow multitudes but rather made her own decisions and stuck to her choices. This decisiveness is primarily notable in Thatcher’s successful repulsion of Falkland Islands by Argentina. Thatcher’s decisiveness is also evident from her introduction of an internal market to the nation’s health care sector. Thatcher was a notable champion of capitalism and free markets. Leadership Skills Thatcher had many leadership skills through which she engaged with her followers. Notably, she had transformative skills as she always engaged her followers in processes of

Reviewing Mixed Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Reviewing Mixed Methods - Essay Example This statement is the hypothesis. A hypothesis is not always necessary for a study because â€Å"some areas of research are too new to warrant tests of hypotheses or the findings are so mixed that a specific hypothesis is not supported by the literature† (Cengage Learning, 2005b). However, they are a feature of the hypothetico-deductive scientific method. When testing a hypothesis, we do not necessarily predict the outcome of one variable based on a change in another, though this may also be the case. But herein lies the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction because testing a hypothesis can alternatively be concerned for example, with whether or not effects actually occur, whether some treatments have effects on an outcome measure, or groups differ from each other (Cengage Learning, 2005a). In short, a hypothesis concerns â€Å"a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables† (Gross, 1996), which may or may not be a predictable cause and effect relationship. In factorial designs for example, a hypothesis â€Å"typically involves an interaction between your Ivs† (Cengage Learning, 2005b) i.e. the independent variables. Thus, a hypothesis allows a prediction to be made, but it is not itself a prediction, whereas a prediction is the expected result of an experiment based on a given hypo thesis (Hays, 1999). This distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction is often unclear (Singer, 2007) in students. The accuracy of a prediction related to a hypothesis could give a strong indication that the hypothesis is true (and so the null hypothesis is to be rejected). At the heart of research through hypothesis formation and testing is the drive for scientific exploration. However, when several hypotheses arise together we are dealing with broader theories. Whilst a hypothesis deals with specific sets of phenomena, a theory constructs a framework of plausible rational explanations for the whole phenomena. The general everyday

How Globalisation Complicates the Process of Business Management and Essay

How Globalisation Complicates the Process of Business Management and Yet Increases Profitability - Essay Example On the other hand, globalisation is inevitably associated with the changes in competitive dynamics, which necessitate the creation and implementation of new business strategies and lead to profound shifts in management consciousness at a global scale. How globalisation drives profitability and complicates business management in international banking is a difficult question. The current state of research into the effects and implications of globalisation for business management and profitability is rather scarce. The main goal of this research is to analyse primary and secondary information in regards to the changes in profitability and business practices as a result of globalisation and internationalisation in the banking sector. Research aims and objectives The main research question is â€Å"how globalisation complicates global banking business and yet increases overall profitability for stakeholders and promoters for global banking enterprises†. ... of globalisation on business management practices; Understand how globalisation raises profitability; Estimate the mechanisms behind globalisation, profitability, and management practices in the banking sector. Literature review The current state of research provides a wealth of information about globalisation and its implications for various economic processes. Much of what was written and said about globalisation revolves around the topic of macroeconomic policies, financial internationalisation, and the shifts in competitive dynamics. However, contemporary scholars display increased interest toward the issues of globalisation and its effects on profitability and business management in organisations. Recent studies and research findings provide useful information about how globalisation affects businesses and decision-making processes in the new, global reality. The significance of the relationship between globalisation and management practices cannot be underestimated. More often than not, globalisation in management reflects through the development and implementation of the universal global standards of professional decision-making. In this context, international accounting and financial standards are among the most frequently discussed topics in professional literature. Beke (2010) suggests that the adoption of international financial standards by firms leads to better profitability and improved quality of accounting practices and decisions in organisations. Furthermore, harmonisation and standardisation of management practices are the most regular consequences of using international financial standards by firms (Beke 2010). Ultimately, it is due to the use of international financial/ accounting standards that businesses spend less time and money managing their

Difference Between Memory And Data Storage Computer Science Essay

Difference Between Memory And Data Storage Computer Science Essay The terms memory and data storage are often confused. Both memory and data storage are means by which a computer keeps data used to perform tasks. Both of them are measured in bytes. The term memory refers to the amount of Random Access Memory (RAM) but also includes Read-Only Memory (ROM) installed in the computer, whereas the term storage refers to the capacity of the computers hard disk. Figure 12: Difference between Memory and Data Storage For example, in figure 12, the file cabinet represents the computers hard disk, which provides storage for all the files and information we need in your office. When we come in to work, we take out the files we need from storage and put them on our desk for easy access while we work on them. The desk is like memory in the computer. It holds the information and data we need to have handy while youre working. The main difference between memory and data storage is their function. Storage is used to hold all the computers information. Data stored in the hard disk is permanent and it is not lost when the computer is turned off. When we delete a file, only the access to that file is removed, not the information itself. To permanently delete a file, the hard disk must be formatted or overwritten. It is even possible that even though a disk has been formatted, an expert can still view the information. Memory and data storage can work together. When the computer does not have enough RAM to support its processes, it converts a portion of the hard disk into virtual memory. Virtual memory acts the same way RAM does. However, since it is a part of the hard disk, using virtual memory slows the computer down. 2.2 Internal Memory and External Memory Computer internal memory is used to store data that is used by the system at startup and to run various types of programs such as the operating system. Typically, internal memory is contained on small microchips that are either attached or connected to the computers motherboard. Computer memory can range from a couple of megabytes to several gigabytes. SRAM, DRAM, and ROM are the example of internal memory. External computer memory is technically any storage device that we can connect to our computer to record data. Flash drives, HDD with USB cable, any SD card are the example of external memory. 2.3 Hierarchy of Storage Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. Historically, memory has been called core, main memory, real storage or internal memory while storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or peripheral storage. 2.3.1 Primary Storage In computer memory the term primary storage or primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which function at high-speed as a difference from secondary storage. Primary storage often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually two buses, an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks. 2.3.2 Secondary Storage Secondary storage or secondary memory is physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. It differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down because it is non-volatile. In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage and it is typically about a million times slower than memory. Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are USB flash drives, floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, and Iomega Zip drives. 2.3.3 Tertiary storage Tertiary storage or tertiary memory provides a third level of storage. Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount and dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the systems demands, these data are often copied to secondary storage before use. It is much slower than secondary storage. This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information and then the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library. 2.3.4 Off-line storage Off-line storage is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction. Off-line storage is used to transfer information. Additionally, in case a disaster like a fire destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards. 2.4 Characteristics of Storage 2.4.1 Volatility Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information and non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. That is why the contents of RAM are erased when the power of the computer is turned off but ROM holds its data indefinitely. The fastest memory technologies of today are volatile ones. Non-volatile memory is suitable for long-term storage of information. 2.4.2 Mutability Read/write storage or mutable storage allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage. Read only storage retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include CD-ROM and CD-R. Slow write, fast read storage is the read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include CD-RW and flash memory. 2.4.3 Accessibility In random access, any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage. Most semiconductor memories and disk drives provide random access. In sequential access, the accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other, therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage. 2.4.4 Addressability In modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage. Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical memory address. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use files addressable systems. Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is selected with human-readable directory and file names. Content-addressable storage can be implemented using software or hardware, hardware being faster but more expensive option. Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on the basis of the contents stored there. 2.4.5 Capacity The total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold is raw capacity. Memory storage density is a measure of the quantity of information bits that can be stored on a given length of track, area of surface, or in a given volume of a computer storage medium. Generally, higher density is more desirable, for it allows greater volumes of data to be stored in the same physical space. Density therefore has a direct relationship to storage capacity of a given medium. 2.4.6 Performance Latency is a measure of time delay experienced in a system, the precise definition of which depends on the system and the time being measured. The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary storage, and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average latency. In communication networks, such as Ethernet or packet radio, throughput or network throughput is the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel. In computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second, though bit rate may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly, typically yields maximum throughput. 2.5 Fundamental Storage Technologies The most commonly used data storage technologies are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies have also been used in the past or are proposed for development. 2.5.1 Semiconductor Semiconductor memory is an electronic data storage device, often used as computer memory, implemented on a semiconductor-based integrated circuit. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. It is made in many different types and technologies. Semiconductor memory has the property of random access, which means that it takes the same amount of time to access any memory location. Semiconductor memory also has much faster access times than other types of data storage. A byte of data can be written to or read from semiconductor memory within a few nanoseconds, while access time for rotating storage such as hard disks is in the range of milliseconds. For these reasons it is used for main computer memory or primary storage, to hold data the computer is currently working on, among other uses. 2.5.2 Magnetic Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data. 2.5.3 Optical Optical storage is a term from engineering referring to the Storage of data on an optically readable medium. Data is recorded by making marks in a pattern that can be read back with the aid of light, usually a beam of laser light precisely focused on a spinning disc. An older example, that does not require the use of computers, is microform. 2.5.4 Paper Paper data storage refers to the use of paper as a data storage device. This includes writing, illustrating, and the use of data that can be interpreted by a machine or is the result of the functioning of a machine. Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole Apr 14 2 Computer Organization and Architecture Facebook Twitter Google Tumblr Computer Memory Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer Memory Figure 1: An Imaginary Computer Memory To know about the detail of computer memory, first of all we should know what is memory? and then what is computer memory?. As we know the memory is a power to remember things. In psychology, memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. But in computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs or data on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device. Computer data storage, often called storage or memory. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers. A computers memory can be said as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered address and can store a single number. In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits. A bit is the basic unit of information in computing and telecommunications. A bit can have only two values, either 1 or 0. Eight bits form a byte. Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers either from 0 to 255 or à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢128 to +127. To store larger numbers several consecutive bytes typically two, four or eight may be used. When negative numbers are required they are usually stored in tows complement notation which is a mathematical operation on binary numbers. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. A computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) and some form of memory. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of data, it is the softwares responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory. In computer architecture, the CPU contains a special set of memory cells which is called registers. A processor register can be read and written too much faster than the main memory area. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. 1.1 First Computer Memory The first computers were often very large, usually as big as a desk or even a room and had minimal processing capability. These early computers were built to work on specific problems or solve certain types of equations and not much more. The first computers used punch cards for input and had very limited memory for processing. The average memory in the first computers was between three and forty five kilo-bits Memory was used to store data in the processing of linear equations, and the results were then printed in binary. When compared to the computers available today, the first computers do not seem very technologically advanced, but at the time they were created these first computers were engineering masterpieces. Many of the concepts created when building early computers are still in use in modern computing technology. The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) credited with being the very first computer. The ABC had a whopping 3000 bits of memory which allowed it to process sixty items at one time. Other early computers had more memory. Some has high as forty five kilobits, which allowed them to process several more words of data in a shorter amount of time increasing the overall processing speed of the system. Without the first computers and their ability to make simple calculations, the technology we use today might not be as advanced as it has become. 1.2 History of Computer Memory In 1940s memory technology mostly permitted few bytes capacity. The first electronic programmable digital computer the ENIAC (ElectronicNumericalIntegratorandComputer) using thousands of octal base radio vacuum tubes. In electronics, a vacuumtube is a device controlling electric current through a vacuum in a sealed container. The ENIAC could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits which were held in the vacuum tube accumulators. The next significant advance in computer memory delaylinememory. It was a form of computer memory used on some of the earliest digital computers. Like many modern forms of electronic computer memory, delay line memory was a refreshable memory but it was opposed to modern random access memory. Delay line memory was sequential access. Delay lines could store bits of information within a quartz and transfer it through sound waves propagating through mercury. Delay line memory would be limited to a capacity of up to a few hundred thousand bits to remain efficient. In 1946 two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, both using electron beams in glass tubes for storage. The Williams tube would prove more capacious than the Selectron tube because the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands. It was also less expensive than Selectron tube. To find non-volatile memory Jay Forrester, Jan A. Rajchman and An Wang developed magnetic core memory in the late 1940s. It was allowed for recall of memory after power loss. Magnetic core memory would become the dominant form of memory until the development of transistor-based memory in the late 1960s. 1.2. 1 Historical Development of Computer Memory Computer memory is much more than DRAM or Flash. It has come a long way up until the origins of todays omnipresent memory technologies. If we take it more than 160 years back in time and revisit the milestones of computer memory technology then products we may have never heard of. 1.2.1.1 Punch Cards Figure 2: Punch Cards Apunched card is a piece ofstiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Earlydigital computers used punched cards as the primary medium for input of bothcomputer programs anddata. In 1837 Charles Babbage first purposed the Analytical Engine, which was the first computer to use punch cards as memory and a way to program the computer. Punch cards also known as Hollerith cardsand IBM cardsare paper cards containing several punched holes that where originally punched by hand and later by computers that represent data. Hollerithspunchcardsused in the 1890 census had round holes, 12 rows and 24 columns. The IBMpunchedcard designed in 1928, had rectangular holes, 80 columns with 12 punch locations and each one character to each column. So 80 x 12 = 960, this gives us a maximum capacity of 960 bits or 125 bytes of data. The use of punch cards predates computers. They were used as early as 1725 in the textile industry f or controlling mechanized textile looms. From the 1900s, into the 1950s, punched cards were the primary medium for data entry,data storage, and processing in institutional computing. As of 2012, some voting machinesstill utilize punched cards to input data. During the 1960s, the punched card was gradually replaced by magnetic tape. 1.2.1.2 Drum Memory Figure 3: DrumMemory Drummemory is an obsolete magnetic data storage device. A drum is a large metal cylinder that is coated on the outside surface with a ferromagnetic recording material. It could be considered the precursor to the hard disk platter, but in the form of a drum rather than a flat disk. In most cases a row of fixed read-write heads runs along the long axis of the drum, one for each track. The drums of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer stored information using regenerative capacitor memory. Regenerativecapacitormemory is a type of computer memory that uses the electrical property of capacitance to store the bits of data. A difference between most drums and a modern hard disk drive is that on a drum there was a track per head so that the heads do not have to move to the track to access data. Head per track disks were used mostly for paging. Particularly while drums were used as main working memory, programmers often took to positioning code onto the drum in such a way as to reduce the amount of t ime needed to find the next instruction. In 1932 Austrian IT engineer Gustav Tauschek invented the first widely used computer memory, called drum memory. In 1942 John Atanasoff successfully tests the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) which was the first computer to use regenerative capacitor drum memory. It was widely used in the 1950s and 60s as the main working memory of computers. Tauscheks original drum memory had a capacity of about 500,000 bits or 62.5 kilobytes. One of the early mass-produced computers, IBM 650, had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory, which in a later model was doubled to about 17 kilobytes. Some drum memories were also used as secondary storage. Drums were later replaced as the main working memory by memory such as core memory. 1.2.1.3 Williams Tube Figure 4: Williams Tube Freddie Williams applies for a patent on his cathode-ray tube (CRT) storing device in 1946. The device that later became known as the Williams tube or Williams- Kilburn tube. It was used as a computer memory to electronically store binary data. It was the first random-access digital storage device. The Williams tube depends on an effect called secondary emission. When a dot is drawn on a cathode ray tube, the area of the dot becomes slightly positively charged and the area immediately around it becomes slightly negatively charged, creating a charge well which is unable to convert to another type of energy. The charge well remains on the surface of the tube for a fraction of a second, allowing the device to act as a computer memory. The charge well lifetime depends on the electrical resistance of the inside of the tube. By drawing a second dot immediately next to the first one the dot can be erased. Information is read from the tube by means of a metal pickup plate that covers the face of the tube. Each time a dot is created or erased, the change in electrical charge induces a voltage pulse in the pickup plate. There is no practical restriction in the order of positions so it is called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³random-accessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³ nature of the lookup. Reading a memory location creates a new charge well, destroying the original contents of that location, and so any read has to be followed by a write to reinstate the original data. Since the charge gradually leaked away, it was necessary to scan the tube periodically and rewrite every dot. Some Williams tubes were made from radar-type cathode ray tubes with a phosphor coating that made the data visible. Each Williams tube could store about 512-1024 bits of data. 1.2.1.4 Selectron Tube Figure 5: Selectron Tube Between 1946 and 1953 Jan Rajchman begins his work on developing the Selectron tube. The original 4096-bit Selectron was a large, 5 inch by 3 inch vacuum tube with a cathode running up the middle, surrounded by two separate sets of wires forming a cylindrical grid, a dielectric material outside of the grid, and finally a cylinder of metal conductor outside the dielectric, called the signal plate. The smaller capacity 256-bit system was constructed similarly, but built in a planar fashion rather than cylindrical,resulting in an even larger vacuum tube. The device used an indirectly heated cathode running up the middle, surrounded by two separate sets of wires and offered a storage capacity of 4096 bits to 256 in the proposed production device. The Williams tube was an example of a general class of cathode ray tube (CRT) devices known as storage tubes. The primary function of a conventional CRT is to display an image by lighting phosphor using a beam of electrons fired at it from an el ectron gun at the back of the tube. Like the Williams Kilburn tube, the Selectron was also a random access storage device. Because of the popularity of magnetic core memory at the time, the Selectron tube was never put into mass production. 1.2.1.5 Magnetic-core Memory Figure 6: Magnetic-core Memory Second major milestone in modern computer memory technology was magnetic core memory which was widely adopted. Core memory or magnetic core memory became a widespread form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings and was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It is said to be non-volatile and will not lose its contents when the power is removed. The term core comes from conventional transformers whose windings surround a magnetic core. The basic principle of core memory was using a core as a ring of ferrite that could be magnetized in one of two directions. As a result, the memory was able to store digital information either a 1 or 0. In core memory the wires pass once through any given core, they are single turn devices. The core can take two states, encoding one bit, which can be read when selected by a sense wire. When the core is read, it is reset to a zero which is known as destructive readout. Circuits in the computer memory system then r estore the information in an immediate re-write cycle. Magnetic core memory was initially very expensive to fabricate but prices dropped as the market developed. It was the standard form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits, starting in the early 1970s. 1.2.1.6 Random access Memory Figure 7: Random access Memory Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. A random-access device allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. Today, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits which is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate or chip of semiconductor material, normally silicon. One distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is possible both to read data from the memory and to write new data into the memory easily and rapidly. Both the reading and writing are accomplished the use of electrical signals. The other distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is volatile. A RAM must be provided with a constant power supply. If the power is interrupted, then the data are lost. Thus, RAM can be used only as temporary storage. The three main forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM) and phase-change memory (PRAM). In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a flip-flop. This form of RAM is more expensive to produce but is generally faster and requires less power than DRAM. In modern computers, it is often used as cache memory for the CPU. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair which together comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low (0 or 1) charge and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitors state of charge or change it. Phase-change memory is also known as PRAM, is a type of non-volatile random-access memory. PRAM can offer much higher performance in applications where writing quickly is important, both because the memory element can be switched more quickly and also because single bits may be changed to either 1 or 0 without needing to first erase an entire block of cells. PRAMs high performance, thousands of times faster than conventional hard drives, makes it particularly interesting in nonvolatile memory roles that are currently performance-limited by memory access timing. ECC memory, which can be either SRAM or DRAM, includes special circuitry to detect or correct random faults or memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction code. A parity bit or check bit is a bit added to the end of a string of binary code that indicates whether the number of bits in the string with the value one is even or odd. Parity bits are used as the simplest form of error detecting code. In information theory and coding theory with applications in computer science and telecommunication, error detection and correction or error control are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data over unreliable communication channels. Many computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of CPU registers, on-die SRAM caches, external caches, DRAM, paging systems and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as RAM by many developers. 1.2.1.7 Read Only Memory Figure 8: Read Only Memory Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty. It is really only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device. When only a small number of ROMs with particular memory content is needed, a less expensive alternative is the programmable ROM (PROM). Like the ROM, the PROM is nonvolatile and may be written into only once. For the PROM, the writing process is performed electrically and may be performed by a supplier or customer at a time later than the original chip fabrication. Special equipment is required for the writing or programming process. Another variation on read only memory is the read mostly memory, which is useful for applications in which read operations far more frequent than write operation but for which nonvolatile storage is required. There are three common forms of read mostly memory, they are EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory. The optically erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM) is read and written electrically, as with PROM. However, before a write operation, all the storage cells must be erased to the same initial state by exposure of the packaged chip to ultraviolet radiation. Erasure is performed by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window that is designed into the memory chip. This erasure process can be performed repeatedly. It has the advantage of the multiple update capability. A more attractive form of read mostly memory is electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM). This is a read mostly memory that can be written into at any time without erasing prior contents, only the byte or bytes addressed are update. The write operation takes considerably longer than the read operation, on the other of several hundred microseconds per byte. The EEPROM combines the advantage of nonvolatility with the flexibility of being updatable in place, using ordinary bus control, address, and data lines. It is suppor

My Philosophy of Education :: Teaching Progressivism Careers Essays

My Philosophy of Education Students for the most part are eager and willing to learn when placed in the proper environment. The attitude of the student is very crucial when it comes to if and how much the student is going to learn. The classroom environment is a major determinant of a student’s attitude. Students need to be taught several aspects of society by an instructor who is able to motivate and encourage. As a teacher I hope to improve the life of my students by providing them the information and ideas which will allow them to excel. Hopefully I can keep the attention of my students by involving them in the classroom and allowing them to participate in the running of the classroom. My involvement in the teaching of science on the secondary level will encourage the students to learn more about this wonderful universe of ours, what makes it work, and all the great aspects which makeup this universe. How else could I influence so many people and be a positive role model for child ren to make them want to succeed and thrive in live? My fellow classmates throughout public school were very willing to learn when placed in the right situations. Classes which revolved around the students being able to make suggestions, be involved in activities, and participate in classroom discussion were very conducive to learning. On the other hand, classes which involved a teacher lecturing and constantly passing out orders and ultimatums were not nearly as successful. Students make a decision very quickly once a new class starts on if they are going to go along with the plan and try to learn, or if they are going to shut out the teacher and be unwilling to learn. All students are not the same but for the most part there are a few self-motivated students who will not be affected by such conditions, while the majority will need the environment which encourages them to learn and succeed. I agree with Plato on this idea of having natural born leaders who are motivated and then those auxiliary members who are obe dient but not willing to participate or push themselves.

Crop rotation

Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel,drugs and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. [1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising domesticated species. For plants, this usually requires some form ofirrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming; pastoral herding on rangeland is still the most common means of raising livestock.In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture (e. g. permaculture or organic agriculture). Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. Pre-industrial agriculture was typicallysubsistence agriculture in which farmers raised most of their crops for their own consumption instead of for trade.A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies, and the development of world markets. This also led to technological improvements in agricultural techniques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitratewhich made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary. Historical Development of Crop Production Early man lived on wild game, leaves, roots, seeds, berries, and fruits.As the population increased, the food supply was not always sufficiently stable or plentiful to supply his needs. This probably led to the practice of crop production. Therefore, crop production began at least nine thousand (9000) years ago when domestication of plants became essential to supplement natural supplies in certain localities. The art of crop production is older than civilization, and its essential features have remained almost unchanged since the dawn of history. These features are: 1. Gathering and preservation of seeds of the desired crop plants 2.Destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land 3. Stirring the soil to form a seedbed 4. Planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience 5. Destroying weeds 6. Protecting the crop from natural enemies 7. Gathering, processing and storing the product Origin of Cultivated Crops All cultivated plants were domesticated from their wild species. However, the exact time and place of origin and the true ancestry of many crops are still as h ighly speculative as the origin of man. Man has domesticated some crop species that met his needs before the dawn of recorded history.Most of the domesticated crops were introduced into new areas far from their centre of origin by migrating human populations in prehistoric as well as in recorded times. As a result, both indigenous and introduced crops are grown everywhere in the world. Bikolandia – Rice, corn, coconut, abaca, rootcrops, copra, and banana CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS A new crop classification, the Indicative Crop Classification (ICC) has been developed for the 2010 round of agricultural censuses, and is given at the end of this appendix.The crop classification used in the 2000 agricultural census programme reflected various elements related to crops, including the growing cycle (temporary/permanent), crop species, crop variety (for example, hybrid/ordinary maize), season (for example, winter/spring wheat), land type (for example, wetland/dryland rice), crop use (fo r example, pumpkin for food/fodder), type of product (for example, fresh/dried beans), how the crop is processed (for example, industrial crops), and cultivation methods (for example, crops grown under protective cover).ICC has been developed based on the Central Product Classification (CPC) (UN, 2004a). CPC classifies goods and services into categories based on the nature of the product and industry of origin. Crop products are classified mainly according to the type of crop. CPC itself is based on the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS), a classification of the World Customs Organization. CPC is also broadly compatible with ISIC, in that the industry of origin is related to ISIC. ICC is also consistent with the classification of commodities used in FAO’s on-line database, FAOSTAT.From a statistical point of view, the crop classification should be closely related to the product classification, and to some extent to the economic activity classification (IS IC). The crop classification refers to which crops are grown, whereas the product classification refers to the product(s) generated from that crop. Thus, â€Å"mustard† is an oilseed crop, whereas â€Å"mustard seed† is the oilseed product. There is not always a one-to-one correspondence between a crop and a product. The same crop may yield two products – for example, cotton may yield cotton fibre and cotton seed. Philippines – Crop production indexCrop production index (2004-2006 = 100) The latest value for Crop production index (2004-2006 = 100) in Philippines was 111. 00 as of 2009. Over the past 48 years, the value for this indicator has fluctuated between 113. 00 in 2008 and 29. 00 in 1961. Definition: Crop production index shows agricultural production for each year relative to the base period 2004-2006. It includes all crops except fodder crops. Regional and income group aggregates for the FAO's production indexes are calculated from the underlying values in international dollars, normalized to the base period 2004-2006.

social mobilization and education essays

social mobilization and education essays Meet Sandra, a mother recently divorced from her abusive middle-class husband. Her previous life had been comfortable; she now lives day-to-day with her children, working as a secretary while attending college courses in her little spare time, all while attending to her home and family. She finally ends up attaining her degree, yet can still find no job paying higher than her secretarial job, so she takes on a second job as a grocery checkout person, still barely making ends meet for her family. As described in Ch. 9 of the Giddens text, this woman had obviously worked very hard to attempt to restore her life back to her previous pre-divorce middle-class state. She says, You try to do the responsible thing, and youre penalized, because the system we have right now doesnt provide you with a way to make it. (p. 169) However, she learned the hard way that class is not quite as easy to transcend in this so-called land of opportunity. The United States is the most highly stratified societ y of the industrialized world. Class distinctions operate in virtually every aspect of our lives, determining the nature of our work, the quality of our schooling, and the health and safety of our loved ones. Yet, remarkably, we, as a nation retain illusions about living in the capitalist land of opportunity, where any average Joe can make his million if he works hard enough. The reality of the our situation is that the US is not as open as we think it may be, meaning that social mobility, or the movement between classes, is not nearly as easy as we may believe. This is due to the fact that many social issues, such as gender, racial, and economic class, serve as barriers that obstruct the path of ones social mobility. Despite our own personal efforts and talents, mobility in our society is primarily based on ones status, and overcoming the stereotypes that accompany one̵...

Intwermidiate Quiz 1 Essay

Intwermidiate Quiz 1 Essay Intwermidiate Quiz 1 Essay Jessica Schwan Federal Income Tax #42 A)Andy could be subject to an audit if the misstated amount accounts for 25 percent or more of the gross income stated. The IRS has 6 years in this case to call an audit. My advice for Andy would be to calculate how much off gross income was stated. If it is less than 25 percent then he is fine. He should however be much more careful and honest in future tax returns. B)My advice would change if I were the preparer. I would want tax returns that I am responsible for to be as accurate as possible. If a material mater was exposed to me, I would file a correction right away. C)I would only consider preparing Andy’s current tax return if all information was present. I would not purposely misstate gross income. I could not morally or legally do so. #51 A)The Child Tax Credit would justify care for a minor while a parent works. B)This act is discourage and therefore not supported with a tax credit. C)The justification for this is that it minimizes the effect of a loss in a current year, and allows you to spread the effects from it to more profitable years, known as a carryback. D)This allows a taxpayer to spread tax consequences over the payout period. The harsh effect of taxing all of the gain in the year of sale is thereby avoided. E)These amounts change year to year, as the current cost of living increases per year caused by inflation. F) With tax-exempt bonds, the federal government gives up more in tax revenues than

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 103

Case Study Example Manufacturing must be closely intertwined with the current enlightened philosophy of marketing where products are expected to meet customer wants, needs, preferences and marketed in a socially responsible manner that is pleasing and beneficial. Manufacturers, such as Mattel Corporation, who manufacture products for children have the responsibility of ensuring that the products are safe in both intended and non-intended uses so as to protect children from harm since, ordinarily, children lack the literacy to comprehend the complete functioning of a product. Moreover, the manufacturers must ensure that the society’s apprehensions on children’s privacy and rights are upheld as this will somewhat guarantee business perpetuity. What’s more, the manufacturers have the responsibility of ensuring that the components used in manufacturing the product are meet the health and safety standards and accurate information indicated on the products label. For instance, the age th at is supposed to use the product and the chemical components should be clearly indicated. Environmental matters must also be taken into consideration by ensuring that any substandard products are safely confiscated so that the public does not gain access

The relationship between atherosclerosis and stress Essay

The relationship between atherosclerosis and stress - Essay Example This fatty build-up would later thicken and then harden or form calcium deposits in the arteries, consequently blocking the arteries. Because of the build-up, the hardened deposits may block the flow of blood along the arteries (Dugdale, 2009). In instances when the coronary artery becomes narrowed by plaque deposits, then blood flow to the heart itself can either slow down or be stopped. The patient can experience chest pain, shortness of breath, and other symptoms when this happens (Dugdale, 2009). These fatty deposits may also break off (as embolus) and flow with the blood in the arteries and veins; they may eventually get lodged in the smaller blood vessels causing heart attacks or strokes (Dugdale, 2009). The causes for atherosclerosis have not been fully determined; however there are traits and conditions which have been considered as risk factors for this disease. It is a condition which slowly and gradually develops over time and may be worsened by factors which induce plaque formation or blood coagulation. These factors may include the following factors or causes: inflammation or infection, hypertension, smoking, and elevated LDL and VLDL (DeBruyne, 2003, p. 603). Other factors like high-fat diet, obesity, high-sodium diet, cigarette smoking, family history, and lack of exercise may also cause atherosclerosis (McConnell, 2007, p. 278). Stress is also being considered as a possible cause of atherosclerosis; however, no firm support has been set forth for this theory as yet. Nevertheless, Circulation, the journal of the American Heart Association cites a study which correlates the â€Å"degree of carotid arterial atherosclerosis with exaggerated response to mental stress in men under the age of 55† (as cited by Diagnose Me, 2009). Their study further established that strong blood pressure responses to stressful situations were seen in those with more advanced atherosclerosis in the carotid arteries as compared to

Businese Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Businese Law - Essay Example By this time Karter had not parted with the money to purchase the paintings. Therefore Karter purchases the paintings knowing very well that Jimmy had repudiated his offer and was not going to make any good payment of them. 1 In Dickinson Vs Dodds, 1876, the defendant gave the plaintiff a written offer to sell him his house for 800 on Wednesday. The offer was to be left open until next Friday 9 a.m. On Thursday the defendant sold the house to someone else. On that very evening, the plaintiff was told of the sale by a third party, but before 9 a.m. on Friday the plaintiff delivered his acceptance to the defendant which the defendant refused to receive. It was held by the court that there was a proper revocation of the offer and the plaintiff could not accept it. 2 Even though Karter had revoked his offer of purchasing the paintings, the revocation / refusal was not procedurally done legally. Under the rules governing any revocation of an offer, that withdrawal must be committed to the person to whom it was made. It means that had Karter not taken the initiative of calling Jimmy would have continued to be silent of his withdrawn intention to purchase the paintings. 3 On the other hand, Karter would be to blame because he had acted outside the agreed terms of their agreement with Karter. According to their agreement Jimmy had expressly told Karter not to spend more than $ 1,000 USD. These terms were very certain but Karter ignored them and purchase paintings worth $5,000 USD. The expression by Jimmy to Karter to only spend $1,000 USD was in fact a term that was too "heavy" to be overlooked. This is because: - (a) Jimmy would not have entered into the contract if the statement was not made. The statement was important because it showed the maximum amount of money that he had and which he was willing to spend on paintings. (b) The statement was made immediately alongside the other agreements meaning that the representer highly regarded its importance. But Karter can still argue that he had thought that the statement was not a term of the contract since it was not followed by a written agreement. Jimmy could have reduced his oral expression into writing. Though he did not expressly state that he could not purchase the paintings if they cost over $1,000 USD, it was implied that he was not going to spend over $1,000 USD in paintings. These are implied terms that parties probably had in mind but did not bother to express. They have to be implied by the courts. Additionally, the parties would have expresses this agreement in writing if they had foreseen the difficulty occurring. Such terms the parties could have expressed in writing had they seen the difficulties are implied by the courts because of the court's view of fairness or public policy. Vincent acted in good faith in selling his painting and cannot be held responsible. He was made to believe in statements that were not true. He was in fact misrepresented by Karter who told him that he had been authorized to purchase the painting on behalf of Jimmy. Misrepresentation renders the contract voidable at the option of the innocent party. The statement was made are the time the contract was made and it induced Vincent into the contract. 4 Vincent could not have entered into the contract if: - (i) He knew that Karter's statement was false. (ii) He would have made the contract despite the misrepresentation. (iii) He did not know that there had been a misrepresentation i.e. after entering into the

Atlantic Slave Trade Essay Example for Free

Atlantic Slave Trade Essay A slave can be defined as a person who is the property of and wholly subject to another, a bond servant or a person entirely under the domination of some influence or person. Slavery was well recognized in many early civilizations. Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, the Akkad Ian Empire, Assyria, Ancient India, Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the Islamic Caliphate, the Hebrews in Palestine, and the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas all had either a form of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment or birth of slave children to slaves. However, as the sixteenth century approached, so did the change in the way slavery would be looked at, for years to come. The Atlantic slave trade became the name of the three part economic cycle that involved four continents for four centuries and millions of people. The Atlantic slave trade or the middle passage, triangular trade and slavery affected the economy of Europe, Africa and the Americas in both negative and positive aspects. Starting in the 1430’s Portuguese were the first to sail down the coast of Africa to search for gold and jewels. The Portuguese had to extend their power across the co+ast because Sub-Saharan Africa’s trade routes were controlled by the Islamic Empire. By 1445, The Portuguese conquered three African countries and created trading posts. This allowed them access to Europe across the Sahara. Initially, the Portuguese traded copperware, cloth, tools, wine and horses for pepper, ivory and most importantly gold. The first slave purchase is said to have taken place in 1441 when the Portuguese caught two African males while they were along the coast. The Africans in the nearby village paid them in gold for their return. Eventually, they developed the idea that they could get more gold by transporting slaves along Africa’s coast. The Muslims were enticed by the idea of slavery as they used them as porters and for profit. Portugal had a monopoly on the export of slaves in Africa for more than two hundred years. This encounter is the beginning of one of the most tragic events in history, the Atlantic triangular trade (Thomas 1997). A triangular trade evolves when a region has export commodities that aren’t required in the region which its major imports come and provides a method for trade imbalances. The triangular trade is named for the rough shape it makes on a map. It worked like a triangle between all the colonies that were involved. For centuries the world was took part in its most successful trading system. There where nearly fifteen million Africans were shipped to both North and South America for more than three-hundred. Slaves, cash crops and manufactured goods were the most traded between the Americas, Europe and Africa. The Europeans controlled the first stage of the trade by carrying supplies for sale and trade such as, cloth, spirit, tobacco, beads, shells, metal goods and guns. This was their method of which were used to help expand empires and capture more slaves. These goods were exchanged for purchased and kidnapped African slaves (www. nmm. ac. uk/freedom/viewTheme. cfm/theme/triangular). African kings and merchants would capture the slaves or organize campaigns ran by the Europeans. The motives of the Europeans were based on one thing; they lacked a major source, a work force. It was stated that the Indigenes people were unreliable and Europeans were unsuited to the climate. However, Africans had experience in agriculture, keeping cattle, content with the climate. Africa soon became reliant on the slavery of their people and the profits that came along with it. The next stage involved the slaves being transported by voyage to the Americas and Caribbean, the middle passage (PBS. â€Å"The African Slave Trade and the Middle Passage. † http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr4. html). The middle passage was a perilous, horrendous journey slaves made across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. The final stage of the Atlantic slave trade was the return to Europe from the Americas with the produce from the slave-labor plantations. Most regions of North and South America were used to provide these raw materials to Europe for manufacturing. This wasn’t the first or only slave trade, but it was the cruelest. What began as a quest for gold ended as a quest for slaves, leaving a major stamp on African and American history (Thomas 1997). Before undergoing the middle passage, slaves faced human misery and suffering. Kidnapped slaves were forced to walk shackled in slave caravans to European coastal forts. Due to the lack of food and energy, half of the slaves became sick and were killed or left to die. Some had the strength to make it so they were left in underground dungeons. For years, Africans were stranded in these dungeons across the coast of Africa.. There, they wait on the embarked horrid encounter of the entire slave trade, the middle passage. None of the previous passengers returned to their homeland so none of the Africans knew what they were about to endure. The voyages were generally organized by companies and investors because they were a huge financial burden(â€Å"The African Slave Trade and the Middle Passage). Two theories show the packing of slaves in the European ships; loose and tight packing. Loose packing carried less slaves with the hopes of more room and more slaves making it to the Americas alive and in fair condition. This was exchanged for tight packing. Captains believed despite more casualties, this would yield a greater profit. On occasion, veterinarians inspected the slaves before the voyage to determine which slaves could make it across the Atlantic Ocean. The enslaved Africans were chained together by hand and foot, not even being able to lie on one’s side. They ate, slept, urinated, defecated, gave birth and died all in that one spot. There was overcrowding, inadequate ventilation and little to no sanitation. Twenty percent of every hundred died along the way from either suffocation, starvation, amoebic dysentery, scurvy or a disease such as small pox. The slaves that died were thrown overboard as well as the slaves that showed illness. Some threw their self-overboard risking their life rather than deal with these horrific measures. Approximately fifteen million captured Africans were sent to the Americas. The middle passage was the longest, most dangerous part of the Atlantic slave trade (â€Å"The Middle Passage Experience†). From the seventeenth century on, slaves became the focus of trade between Europe and Africa. Europe had already colonized North and South America as well as the Caribbean islands from the fifteenth century onward. This created an insatiable demand for African laborers, who were deemed â€Å"more fit† to work in the tropical conditions of the New World. The numbers of slaves imported across the Atlantic Ocean steadily increased, from approximately 5,000 slaves a year in the sixteenth century to over 100,000 slaves a year by the end of the eighteenth century (www. mariner. org/captivepassage). Upon their arrival to the Americas, the slaves were washed, greased and placed inside dungeons. The grease added a more appealing look making the slaves appear healthier so the profit would be much higher. European slave traders made sure all of their potential properties were in well condition before bidding. They were branded with a hot iron to keep their identity as a slave. There were two main types of slave auctions; highest bidder or grab and go auctions. Highest bidder was a bidding process which the buyer with the highest bid would get the slave. Grab and go auctions was the process in which the buyer would give the trader an agreed amount of money in exchange for a ticket. This process was where the slaves were released from their dungeon and the buyers would rush and grab the slave they wanted, Each slave would be sold to an owner who owned a great deal of land and worked on either a plantation or mine and there, the living conditions were still only barely better (Curtin 1969) A prominent African, author and a major influence on the enactment of the Slave Trade Act of 1807, Olaudah Equiano was well aware and very familiar with the Atlantic slave trade. At the age of eleven, Equiano and his sister were kidnapped from his village in Nigeria. He survived the middle passage, and taken to the West Indies. He tells how he was bought by Captain Pascal, a British naval Officer as a â€Å"present† for a cousin. He tells how was enslaved in North America for ten years, working as a seaman. In 1766, he bought his freedom and wrote an autobiography, â€Å"The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano,† Equiano gave a firsthand look of the conditions enslaved Africans were forced to live. This document was one of the first documents that explained, thoroughly, the terrible human cruelty of the Atlantic slave trade (Wright et al. 001). Although many lives were taken or at risk, The Atlantic slave trade fulfilled its major goal, profit and change the three continents. Europe, America and Africa’s economy were all affected by the slave trade. Europe’s economy was suffering before the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade was during the time of recovery for Europe and completely recovered their economy. Because of the success of the trade, they needed more people to manufacture raw materials and export them to Africa. The great supply of jobs created many exports and the income to buy imports. By the end of the slave trade, Europe’s economy was in well standings as one of the wealthiest continents in the world. The America’s economies rose too. They were honored with a free workforce that provided many resources from sugar to cotton. The free labor allotted for them to received one hundred percent of the profit. They were importing more slaves and exporting the goods made by them to gaining wealth. America’s economy became agriculturally stable and soon industrialized. Europe and the Americas economies were affected in a positive way. However, Africa’s economy received a negative effect. Many, for years lived in fear due to slavery. African villages became small and poor. All of the kingdoms that were strong at one time, collapsed and were conquered. They received raw material goods from the slave trade but with nothing shown. The African kings prospered only because they were heavily involved in the slave trade. As the kings’ wealth grew, their economy was at a standstill and eventually failed. The Atlantic slave trade, human cruelty and evil at its finest, had a substantial effect on Europe, the Americas and Africa (www. understandingslavery. com).

Children With Behavioral Disorders in Single Parent Homes Essays

Unfortunately, we live in a world were economic times are tough. It can be a struggle for parents to adequately support children - especially if there is only one parent. According to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development about 15.9 percent of children world wide live in single-parent households. In the United states alone there are approximately 13.7 million single parents today, and those parents are responsible for raising 21.8 million children (approximately 26% of children under 21 in the U.S. today). The question we must ask is, What struggles and psychological effect does separation and divorce have on the parents as well as the children? Divorce is the final termination of a marital union, canceling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage and dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties. In most countries divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process. The legal process for divorce may also involve issues of spousal support, child custody, child support, distribution of property and division of debt. Shared custody is awarded in approximately twenty percent of all divorce child custody cases. When shared custody is not awarded, the court will award one parent sole custody of the child. A court may also award a parent joint custody. Joint custody is a court order whereby custody of a child is awarded to both parties. In joint custody both parents are "custodial parents" and neither parent is a non-custodial parent; or, in other words, the child has two custodial parents. Seventy percent of all child custody cases name the mother as the custodial parent. A â€Å"b roken family† will effect the mother, father and child in different ways; with mothers usua... ...1%) as likely to have one or more total problems than those from two-parent families, twice as likely to have an emotional disorder, etc(National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth ). Works Cited See e.g., Cal. Fam. Code sect. 3004 http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=fam&group=02001-03000&file=3000-3007 1988 Census "Child Support and Alimony: 1989 Series" P-60, No. 173 p.6-7, and "U.S. General Accounting Office Report" GAO/HRD-92-39FS January 1992 Center for Disease Control National Principals Association Report on the State of High Schools Fulton County Georgia Jail Populations and Texas Dept. of Corrections, 1992 GROWING UP IN CANADA, National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (Human Resources Development Canada, Statistics Canada, Catalogue no. 89-550-MPE, no.1, November 1996, p. 91) Available from StatCan.

Colloid Cysts, Physical and Personal Impacts on Patient and Spouse :: Medical Medicine Papers

Colloid Cysts, Physical and Personal Impacts on Patient and Spouse Introduction: The patient is a 45 year old male who was in a car accident that involved alcohol on July 29, 2004. I have known the patient for three years and will be referring to aspects of the patient that I know to be true, but am unable to cite all details due to learning them via the dynamics of the relationship. The patient and the patients’ spouse have requested complete anonymity for the purpose of this paper. The car accident resulted in a series of injuries for the patient which were a fractured pelvis, a lacerated bladder, internal organ bruising, a moderate concussion, and sciatic nerve palsy (nerve damage). The moderate concussion was determined by a computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan which also showed the colloid cyst. The patient believes he was made aware of the cyst; however his memories are not absolute and the spouse was not made aware at the same time. The cyst was mentioned (again) at the end of September and the brain surgery happened on February 13, 2005, six and a half months later. This series of interviews has occurred during the two months after the surgery. (Patient, Patient Spouse, personal communication, April, 27, 2005) Symptoms: The patient was suffering from intense dizzy spells for a year prior to the car accident. The patient is a licensed chiropractor and as he put it, â€Å"Doctors make the worst patients†, so he rationalized the dizziness and never expressed a need or desire to medically investigate it. The patient had not been experiencing the most common symptom, a headache. (Patient, Patient Spouse, personal communication, April 28, 2005) In the literature about colloid cysts there is a high prevalence of symptomatic headaches in the patients, often it is the headaches the patients are trying to resolve when the colloid cyst is discovered. (www.healthcentral.com/encyclopedia) The car accident fractured the patient’s pelvis so the treating physicians rebuilt his pelvis and began physical therapy before they scheduled the colloid cyst surgery. It was at this time the patients spouse learned about the cyst; it had been two months since its discovery. After becoming aware of the cyst, the patient presented with mild headaches. (Patient Spouse, personal communication, April 28, 2005) Surgery: The surgery occurred six and a half months after the CAT scan.

Database Implementation Plan for Riordan Manufacturing

Database Implementation Plan for Riordan Manufacturing Riordan Manufacturing has asked our firm, LTB and Associates, to develop a web-based plan to be used as a Business-to-Business web site in order to purchase materials from their vendors. We have examined Riordan’s products and business systems, interviewed Riordan’s employees, and have determined the best course of action to implement the plan. Riordan Manufacturing is a plastics manufacturer based in several locations across the world. With three plants based in the continental US, which are located in Albany, Georgia; Pontiac Michigan; and in San Jose, California, which is the company headquarters. A fourth plant is located in Hangzhou, China will not be part of the plan as they purchase materials locally. This where we explain how the database will be set up. Refer to the ERD, Sequence diagram, Use Case diagram, and Class Diagram that follow [pic] [pic] The following paragraphs will describe the considerations that Riordan Manufacturing will need to make in implementing the database plan.Database Management System and Data Where ever it is possible to for our firm to do so, LTB and Associates will make a recommendation on the choice to make. In order to implement the database properly, these recommendations should be implemented in order to offer the tightest amount of security that will be possible. Type of Online Processing Riordan Manufacturing will need to decide between real-time asynchronous processing and batch processing. Real-time asynchronous processing is applicable when the processing must be performed immediately or when the results must eventually be communicated back to an on-line user. One of the problems with real-time processing is that real-time timers and events are required; they are expensive as the computer resources that are used to raise, maintain and check events. Another problem with timer or even processes is that they create locking problems as they may contend with on-line processes for resources and for access the same data. Batch solutions are ideal for processing that is not real-time event based. Batch processes are data-centric and can efficiently process large volumes of data off-line without affecting the company’s on-line system. Batch processing will allow business function to execute on a periodic or recurring basis; or it can operate over data that matches a given criteria. After studying Riordan Manufacturing’s Inventory and Supply Chain processes, the recommendation is for the company to go with batch processing for replenishment of raw materials for the operations. With daily reporting of the materials used at the end of each manufacturing run as the current method of inventory control, batch processing will work well. While real-time processing works well for online shopping, it is not the best approach to take for this application. Access Privileges Normally it is not considered a good security risk to grant access to individuals/companies who are located outside of the normal company network and/or firewall. But in order to provide a better integration of the database between Riordan Manufacturing and vendors/suppliers it is necessary to allow limited access. Riordan shall determine the types of privileges to grant to vendors. These privileges include (a) view, (b) insert, (c) update, and (d) delete (logical deletion only). Riordan shall also determine the type of data vendor should be able to access. The data should only relate to the materials that have been used in the daily manufacturing run; materials that have been previously placed on order; and the estimated projections of materials needed for the upcoming week. This will allow both Riordan Manufacturing and the suppliers to determine the present and short-term inventory needs. Bandwidth High speed access of the Internet has decreased in cost in recent years and the increased utility and the increased ease of use versus the cost of acquiring and maintaining the access has become more financially feasible. LTB and Associates recommend that Riordan acquire the appropriate bandwidth that will allow for the effective flow of information and which will support concurrent access of the company database. Security With the ever-growing threats that are present in the web-based global economy, there is an increased awareness of security. This includes both corporate and political terrorism as well as the knowledgeable lone user bent on mischief. LTB and Associates recommend that the administration plan should ensure that there are methods of data security implemented as information travels over the internet. An effective firewall should be implemented to deny access to unauthorized people. Data should be encrypted. Whenever possible, a Virtual Private Network be established between Riordan Manufacturing and the larger and more critical suppliers Database Administration Plan To ensure the productivity, continuity, and performance of the database for Riordan, proper maintenance, database backup, and change management procedures must be developed and implemented. The database must be backed up regularly in case the system needs to be restored due to data corruption or the loss of the data center due to natural or man-made disasters. Database backups are also critical for testing upgrades, fixes, and enhancements that will need to be migrated into production. Periodic maintenance is also a key to database performance and continuity. Applying operating system patches and security updates to the servers that house the databases help keep the software updated and the servers performing efficiently. Consistent re-indexing of the database can help keep performance high as the database grows in size. Another very important part of administering a database is change management. Database upgrades, fixes, and enhancements must be tested and implemented in a manner that minimizes potential errors, disruption to users, and preserves an audit trail for troubleshooting and compliance issues. Database Backup Plan In order to minimize potential data loss and downtime, the database will be backed up each night and stored in a secure location on the network. Storing the backups on the network will help facilitate transferring the backup to the disaster recovery site. Once the backup is created and stored on the network, a copy will be encrypted and transmitted to the disaster recovery ite. The backup can then be easily restored at the disaster recovery site as needed, or used in a development environment for testing upgrades, fixes, and enhancements. Database administrators will also have the ability to create backups as needed for testing or emergency purposes. Database backups will be restored to the disaster recovery database at least bi-monthly to verify that the backups are generating correctly and that the disaster recovery-restore process is working as it should. Maintenance Plan Once a month, the database servers will undergo scheduled maintenance. Operating system patches, security updates, and database application patches will be applied to the hardware housing the database in order to ensure the system is kept up to date. Database hardware will also undergo diagnostic checks to ensure everything is working properly. At this time the database will also be re-indexed to preserve performance as the database grows. The patches, security updates, and database application patches will be applied to the development servers one week prior to implementation on the production server. Applying the maintenance related patches to the development system a week prior to implementation in the production system will allow time to monitor the development systems for any issues resulting from the patches and ensure the patches are safe to install into production. For emergency maintenance issues such as hardware failures or power outages, the disaster recovery database will be restored from the latest production backup and work should be closely coordinated with the server team to ensure proper procedures are followed. Change Management The backbone to any administration plan is change management. Maintenance, database backups, upgrades, and other events must be carefully tested, planned, and executed to minimize potential consequences including data corruption and downtime, and changes must be closely tracked to preserve the integrity of the database, maintain a log of changes for troubleshooting potential issues, and ensure proper testing and compliance controls are met. The database team will use Microsoft’s Visual Source Safe (VSS) as the main tool for version control. Patches, fix scripts, and any other code that applies to the databases will be stored in VSS and roper code check in and check out procedures will be followed to ensure the proper code changes are migrated to the database. Only database administrators will have the ability to migrate changes to the databases. Developers can check out and modify code, but cannot implement any changes in the databases. All changes will be properly tested in a development database and signed off on by the appropriate par ties. A network of IT and business â€Å"approvers† will be established for each business area (for example: accounting, procurement, sales, etc. ) and will be responsible for signing off on changes that affect their particular areas. There will be at least one main approver and one backup approver that are subject matter experts for their respective business areas so that all areas utilizing the database will have a representative. Approvers will be the preferred testers, but other users may test changes as long as the approvers review the test results prior to signing off on the test. Signoff for changes will be obtained via email using a template that details the change to be made, a tracking number for the change, and the location in VSS where the change is stored, so that the database administrators will be able to pull the change directly from VSS for implementation. Database administrators will not proceed with migration of a change until all appropriate approvers have responded in the affirmative. Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) While preparing a disaster recovery plan (DRP), it is essential to think about the hardware, software and data that will be used to allow for an organization to continue operations in the event of a natural disaster or a disaster caused by human hands. In considering the idea of protection of the database, this plan will not only help preserve the company’s investment but also secure the customers faith in Riordan. Some companies spend some 25% of their information technology budget on disaster recovery plans. LTB and Associates recommends the implementation of a DRP. The cost of implantation and the subsequent maintenance versus the cost of a data loss is negligible in the impact it would have. The first step in drafting a disaster recovery plan is conducting a thorough risk analysis of the database systems. Make a list all the possible threats to system operation and evaluate the likelihood of their occurrence. The threats can include electronic-based; such as virus attacks or data deletions, deliberate or accidental; and natural disasters, such as fire, flood, storm or earthquake. Once the threats have been identified and ranked in likelihood of occurrence; what can be done to minimize or limit the impact from these disasters. The more preventative actions we can establish in the beginning the better. It is better to take a proactive rather than a reactive approach in determining and documenting the DRP. The recovery procedure will be written in a detailed plan defining the roles and responsibilities of the IT staff. Defining how to compensate for the loss of various aspects of the network (databases, servers, communications links, etc. ) and specify who will arrange for these repairs and how the data recovery process will occur. Communication Plan During a disaster situation, all parts of the communication plan should be cleared with a central location. All information should be reviewed by management before being released. LTB and Associates recommend that the following steps be implemented. 1. Communication methods need to be established in advance. (Wireless or satellite telephone systems, email address, etc†¦) 2. Develop templates for press releases, and include the skill sets of key employees, customer information, supplier information. Include maps of locations that may be difficult to communicate in. Develop logs that can be used to track incoming and outgoing communications. 3. Make sure that these processes are easy to understand. 4. Develop a contingency plan should the computer network where data is stored is damaged. Use text files and several copies in different storage devices and store this information in a remote server or on removable media which is then stored offsite. 5. Determine what is to be considered as privileged/proprietary information; establish which levels of management and the key personnel to have access to the information; and the approvals for accessing the information 6. Develop a set of detailed documents and instructions that can be shared with employees. . Establish a set of technology based tools. 8. Develop a detailed training plan; be sure to include all key personnel, top management and support personnel that can interface with customer and/or suppliers. 9. Develop relationships with News Service agencies. 10. Establish and train employees as observers to watch for individuals with microphones and notepads; make sure they are aware of the proper channels of communications. 11. D o plan periodic mock scenarios and drills of disasters in order to review the DRP. LTB and Associates recommends that the follow items be purchased, maintained, implemented, and stringently adhered to at every Riordan Manufacturing plant in the continental USA. †¢ Prevention Plan †¢ An electronic manual. †¢ A printed hardcopy manual. †¢ Data and Software Backups †¢ Daily backups, local to each plant and stored offsite. †¢ Weekly backup, to be performed system-wide by the Atlanta, Georgia plant and stored offsite. †¢ Storage area networks. †¢ Surge Protectors and Power Supply Fault Switches. †¢ Anti Virus, Firewall and Security Software. †¢ Fire Prevention and Detection Smoke detectors and fire alarm systems. †¢ Fire extinguishers. †¢ Review and update insurance policies for all facilities and equipment. Disaster Recovery Process. In the event of a disaster occurring at any Riordan Manufacturing plant the following steps should be taken to restore the operation of the system to normal operation. The steps c an apply to any and all sites. 1. Contact the proper level of management and notify pertinent personnel a. Determine if the equipment is functional and has suffered no damage. b. Repair or replace the equipment as needed per the situation. 2. Retrieve the latest weekly backup from the Atlanta, Georgia server and/or facility. (Note – if the Atlanta plant is the affected plant, retrieve the last weekly back up from the offsite storage facility) 3. Restore the database to the server. Perform a system check for proper operation. 4. Retrieve the latest daily backup from the offsite storage facility. 5. Restore the database to the server. Perform a system check for proper operation. 6. Retrieve and key in any pertinent data that was recorded on hardcopy sources from the affected plant and double check accuracy with personnel if possible.